Which theory explains the discomfort people feel when holding two or more contradictory beliefs, values, or attitudes?

• A. Cognitive Dissonance Theory
• B. Self-Determination Theory
• C. Maslow's Hierarchy
• D. Operant Conditioning

Answer: (A)

The main idea here is cognitive dissonance—the psychological discomfort that arises when a person holds two or more contradictory beliefs, values, or attitudes, or when their behavior conflicts with those beliefs. When that tension appears, people are motivated to reduce it. They might change one belief to align with their actions, add new beliefs that justify the behavior, or downplay the importance of the conflict.

For example, someone who values honesty but plagiarizes a paper may convince themselves the assignment wasn’t worth much, that everyone does it, or that the teacher wouldn’t notice. These strategies lessen the discomfort by restoring consistency between beliefs and actions.

Other theories describe different ideas. Self-Determination Theory focuses on what drives motivation—autonomy, competence, and relatedness—rather than the distress from conflicting cognitions. Maslow’s Hierarchy maps out needs from basic survival to self-actualization. Operant Conditioning explains how behaviors are shaped by rewards and punishments.